Method and apparatus for renal neuromodulation

ABSTRACT

An apparatus for renal neuromodulation includes an expandable support member having a main body portion for engaging a wall of a blood vessel proximate a renal vasculature and at least one electrode connected with the main body portion. The at least one electrode is arranged to selectively deliver electric current to a desired location where modulation of the sympathetic nervous system is effective to alter renal function. The apparatus further includes an insulative material attached to at least a portion of the main body portion for isolating blood flow through the vessel from the electric current delivered by the at least one electrode.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This applications claims priority from U.S. Provisional PatentApplication Ser. No. 60/922,965, filed Apr. 11, 2007, it is acontinuation in part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/641,331,filed Dec. 19, 2006, and a continuation in part of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 11/222,766, filed Sep. 12, 2005 , now abandoned.The subject matter of the aforementioned applications is incorporated byreference in their entireties.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates generally to renal neuromodulation, andmore particularly to methods and apparatus for achieving renalneuromodulation via an implantable device capable of delivering anelectric current to a desired intravascular location.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The kidneys are a pair of organs that lie in the back of the abdomen oneach side of the vertebral column. The kidneys play an importantregulatory role in maintaining the homeostatic balance of the body. Forexample, the kidneys eliminate foreign chemicals from the body, regulateinorganic substances and extracellular fluid, and function as endocrineglands, secreting hormonal substances like renin and erythropoietin.

The main functions of the kidneys are maintaining the water balance ofthe body and controlling metabolic homeostasis. Healthy kidneys regulatethe amount of fluid in the body by making urine more or lessconcentrated, thus either reabsorbing or excreting more fluid,respectively. Urine production in the kidneys is regulated in partthrough autoregulation, which involves reflexive changes in thediameters of the arterioles supplying the nephrons, thereby alteringblood flow and filtration rates. Both hormonal and neural mechanisms cansupplement or adjust the local responses.

The kidneys and ureters are innervated by the renal nerves. Most of thenerve fibers involved are sympathetic postganglionic fibers from thesuperior mesenteric ganglion. A renal nerve enters each kidney at thehilus and follows the branches of the renal artery to reach individualnephrons. Known functions of sympathetic innervation include: (1)regulation of renal blood flow and pressure; (2) stimulation of reninrelease; and (3) direct stimulation of water and sodium ion resorption.

A variety of methods are currently used to treat kidney disease andconditions associated with kidney disease. For example, pharmacologicalcompositions, such as FERRLECIT (iron gluconate) and VENOFER (ironsucrose), dialysis, and surgical intervention, such as kidneytransplantation, are all used. Another method used to treat kidneydisease and conditions associated with kidney disease involveselectrostimulation of the renal nerves. Such electrostimulation methods,however, are often non-specific and offer only short-term symptomaticrelief.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect of the present invention, an apparatus for renalneuromodulation comprises an expandable support member having a mainbody portion for engaging a wall of a blood vessel proximate a renalvasculature, and at least one electrode connected with the main bodyportion. The at least one electrode is arranged to selectively deliverelectric current to a desired location where modulation of thesympathetic nervous system (SNS) is effective to alter renal function.The apparatus further includes an insulative material attached to atleast a portion of the main body portion for isolating blood flowthrough the vessel from the electric current delivered by the at leastone electrode.

In another aspect of the present invention, an apparatus for renalneuromodulation comprises an expandable support member for engaging awall of a blood vessel proximate a renal vasculature. The expandablesupport member includes a main body portion having at least onefenestration and at least one branch member for engaging a wall of ablood vessel in the renal vasculature. The at least one branch memberincludes first and second end portions. The first end portion isanastomosed with the at least one fenestration. The apparatus furtherincludes at least one electrode connected with the expandable supportmember arranged to selectively deliver electric current to a desiredlocation where modulation of the SNS is effective to alter renalfunction. The apparatus also includes an insulative material attached toat least a portion of the expandable support member for isolating bloodflow through the vessel from the electric current delivered by the atleast one electrode.

In another aspect of the present invention, an apparatus for renalneuromodulation comprises an expandable support member having a mainbody portion for engaging a wall of a blood vessel proximate a renalvasculature, and at least one electrode connected with the main bodyportion arranged to selectively deliver electric current to a desiredlocation where modulation of the SNS is effective to alter renalfunction. The apparatus further includes at least one wireless modulecapable of receiving electrical energy for delivery to the at least oneelectrode.

In another aspect of the present invention, a method for renalneuromodulation is provided. One step of the method includes providingan expandable support member having a main body portion for engaging awall of a blood vessel proximate a renal vasculature. The expandablesupport member includes at least one electrode connected with the mainbody portion arranged to selectively deliver electric current to adesired location, and an insulative material attached to at least aportion of the main body portion for isolating blood flow through thevessel from the electric current delivered by the at least oneelectrode. The main body portion is implanted intravascularly so thatthe main body portion is proximate a renal vasculature and at least oneelectrode is positioned substantially adjacent a desired location wheremodulation of the SNS is effective to alter renal function. Electriccurrent is then delivered to the at least one electrode to effect achange in the SNS.

In another aspect of the present invention, a method for renalneuromodulation is provided. One step of the method includes providingan expandable support member for engaging a wall of a blood vesselproximate a renal vasculature. The expandable support member includes amain body portion having at least one fenestration and at least onebranch member having first and second end portions. The first endportion is anastomosed with the at least one fenestration. Theexpandable support member further includes at least one electrodeconnected with the expandable support member arranged to selectivelydeliver electric current to a desired location, and an insulativematerial attached to at least a portion of the expandable support memberfor isolating blood flow through the vessel from the electric currentdelivered by the at least one electrode. The main body portion isimplanted intravascularly so that the main body portion is proximate arenal vasculature and at least one electrode is positioned substantiallyadjacent a desired location where modulation of the SNS is effective toalter renal function. The at least one branch member is then deployedsuch that the at least one branch member is positioned in the renalvasculature and at least one electrode is positioned substantiallyadjacent a desired location where modulation of the SNS is possible.Electric current is then delivered to one or both of the at least oneelectrode to effect a change in the SNS.

In another aspect of the present invention, a method for renalneuromodulation is provided. One step of the method includes providingan expandable support member having a cuff-like configuration andcomprising a main body portion. The main body portion includes a lumenfor engaging an extravascular wall of a blood vessel comprising aportion of a renal vasculature. The expandable support member alsoincludes at least one electrode connected with the main body portion andbeing arranged to selectively deliver electric current to a desiredlocation, and an insulative material attached to at least a portion ofthe main body portion. The main body portion is implantedextravascularly so that the main body portion is in direct contact witha portion of the renal vasculature and at least one electrode ispositioned substantially adjacent a desired location where modulation ofthe SNS is effective to alter renal function. Electric current is thendelivered to the at least one electrode to effect a change in the SNS.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The foregoing and other features of the present invention will becomeapparent to those skilled in the art to which the present inventionrelates upon reading the following description with reference to theaccompanying drawings, in which:

FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an apparatus for insertion into a bloodvessel and for renal neuromodulation constructed in accordance with thepresent invention;

FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of the autonomic nervous systemshowing the sympathetic division and the projections of the sympatheticdivision;

FIG. 3 is an elevation view of the splanchnic nerves and celiac ganglia;

FIG. 4 is a schematic view illustrating human renal anatomy;

FIG. 5 is a schematic view illustrating sympathetic innervation of therenal anatomy;

FIG. 6A is a perspective view showing the apparatus in FIG. 1 receivingelectrical energy from a wireless energy delivery source;

FIG. 6B is a schematic sectional view taken along line 6-6 in FIG. 6A;

FIG. 7A is a perspective view showing an alternative embodiment of theapparatus shown in FIG. 1;

FIG. 7B is a schematic sectional view taken along line 7-7 in FIG. 7A;

FIG. 8A is a perspective view showing another alternative embodiment ofthe apparatus shown in FIG. 1;

FIG. 8B is a schematic sectional view taken along line 8-8 in FIG. 8A;

FIG. 9 is a perspective view showing an alternative embodiment of theapparatus in FIG. 1;

FIG. 10 is a perspective view showing another alternative embodiment ofthe apparatus in FIG. 1;

FIG. 11 is a perspective view showing another alternative embodiment ofthe apparatus shown in FIG. 1;

FIG. 12 is a perspective view showing an alternative embodiment of theapparatus shown in FIG. 11;

FIG. 13 is a perspective view showing another alternative embodiment ofthe apparatus shown in FIG. 1;

FIG. 14 is a schematic view showing a guidewire extending through afemoral artery into the abdominal aorta;

FIG. 15 is a schematic view showing the apparatus of FIG. 12 beingdelivered to the abdominal aorta proximate the renal vasculature;

FIG. 16 is a schematic view showing branch members being delivered tothe abdominal aorta proximate the renal vasculature;

FIG. 17 is a schematic view showing the apparatus of FIG. 1 implanted inthe renal anatomy;

FIG. 18 is a schematic view showing branch members implanted in therenal vasculature;

FIG. 19 is a schematic view showing an alternative embodiment of theapparatus in FIG. 1 implanted in the renal anatomy; and

FIG. 20 is a schematic view showing an alternative embodiment of theapparatus in FIG. 1 placed extravascularly about a left renal artery.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention relates generally to renal neuromodulation, andmore particularly to methods and apparatus for achieving renalneuromodulation via an implantable device capable of delivering anelectric current to a desired intravascular location. As representativeof the present invention, FIG. 1 illustrates an apparatus 10 for renalneuromodulation. The apparatus 10 comprises an expandable support member12 having a main body portion 14 for engaging a wall of a blood vesselproximate a renal vasculature 30 (FIG. 4). The expandable support member12 (FIG. 1) includes at least one electrode 16 and an insulativematerial 18 attached to at least a portion of the expandable supportmember. The main body portion 14 includes at least one fenestration 20and at least one branch member 22 anastomosed with the at least onefenestration.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical terms used herein have the samemeaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art towhich the present invention pertains.

In the context of the present invention, the term “renal vasculature”refers to the kidneys and their associated anatomical structures, suchas the renal arteries, the renal veins, and the ureters.

As used herein, the term “sympathetic nervous system” or “SNS” refers tothe part of the autonomic nervous system originating in the thoracic andlumbar regions of the spinal cord that generally inhibits or opposes thephysiological effects of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS).

As used herein, the term “desired location” refers to a desiredanatomical location at which the present invention may be positioned.The desired location can comprise a variety of anatomical locations,including intraluminal and extraluminal locations innervated by at leastone nerve. For example, the desired location can comprise anintravascular or extravascular location innervated by at least onenerve. Examples of desired locations according to the present inventioninclude, but are not limited to, the renal sinus, the renal arteries,the intraabdominal artery, the smaller arteries and arterioles of thekidneys, such as the segmental arteries, the lobar arteries, theinterlobar artery, the arcuate arteries, the afferent arterioles, andthe glomerulus, the left and right ureters, the renal ganglia, such asthe celiac ganglia, the superior mesenteric ganglion, the left and rightaorticorenal ganglia, the inferior mesenteric ganglion, and the efferentfibers emanating therefrom. Desired locations contemplated by thepresent invention are also illustrated in FIGS. 2-5 and FIGS. 14-20, andare described in further detail below.

As used herein, the term “anastomosis” refers to a connection betweentwo lumens that puts the lumens in fluid communication with each other.“Anastomosing” refers to the process of forming an anastomosis.

As used herein, the terms “renal disease” or “renal disorder” refer toany disease or disorder afflicting the renal vasculature and/or renalphysiology. Renal disease may be marked by decline in kidney functionover time (i.e., a chronic condition), as well as acute damage to thekidneys resulting in loss of renal function. Renal disease can resultfrom a primary pathology of the kidneys (e.g., injury to the glomerulusor tubule) or another organ (e.g., pancreas) which adversely affects theability of the kidneys to perform biological functions (e.g., retainprotein). Thus, renal disease can be the direct or indirect effect ofdisease. Examples of a renal disease as a result or consequence of anindirect effect on the kidneys is kidney disease as a consequence ofdiabetes or systemic lupus. Other examples of renal disease include, butare not limited to, nephritis (acute and chronic), nephropathy,hyperfiltration, mild microalbuminuria, clinical albuminuria, kidneyfailure, polycystic kidney disease, chronic renal insufficiency, chronicor acute renal failure, end-stage renal disease, acute nephriticsyndrome, analgesic nephropathy, atheroembolic renal disease,Goodpasture's syndrome, interstitial nephritis, kidney cancer, kidneyinfection, kidney stones, membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (GN)I, membranoproliferative GN II, membranous nephropathy, necrotizing GN,nephrocalcinosis, post-streptococcal GN, reflux nephropathy, renalartery embolism, renal artery stenosis, renal papillary necrosis, renaltubular acidosis (types I and II), renal underperfusion, renal veinthrombosis, and disorders or diseases associated with renal disease,such as chronic or acute congestive heart failure and hypertension(e.g., chronic hypertension).

As used herein, the term “renal excretion” refers to the removal oforganic wastes from bodily fluids by the kidneys.

As used herein, the term “renal elimination” refers to the discharge ofwaste products via the kidneys and/or ureters.

As used herein, the term “homeostatic regulation” refers to theregulation or control of blood plasma volume and solute concentration bythe kidneys. Examples of homeostatic regulation include: (1) regulationof blood volume and pressure by, for example, adjusting volume of waterlost in the urine and releasing erythropoietin and renin); (2)regulating plasma ion concentrations (e.g., sodium, potassium, chlorideions, and calcium ion levels) by controlling the quantities lost in theurine and the synthesis of calcitrol; (3) stabilizing blood pH bycontrolling loss of hydrogen and bicarbonate ions in the urine; (4)conserving valuable nutrients by preventing their excretion; and (5)assisting the liver with detoxification.

A brief discussion of the neurophysiology is provided to assist thereader with understanding the present invention. The autonomic nervoussystem is a subsystem of the human nervous system that controlsinvoluntary actions of the smooth muscles (blood vessels and digestivesystem), the heart, and glands (FIG. 2). The autonomic nervous system isdivided into the SNS 32 and the PNS. The SNS 32 generally prepares thebody for action by increasing heart rate, increasing blood pressure, andincreasing metabolism. The PNS prepares the body for rest by loweringheart rate, lowering blood pressure, and stimulating digestion.

Several large sympathetic nerves and ganglia are formed by the neuronsof the SNS 32 (FIG. 3). The greater splanchnic nerve (GSN) 34 is formedby efferent sympathetic neurons exiting the spinal cord from thoracicvertebral segment numbers 4 or 5 (T4 or T5) through thoracic vertebralsegment numbers 9 or 10 or 11 (T9, T10, or T11). The lesser splanchnicnerve (lesser SN) 36 is formed by preganglionic, sympathetic efferentfibers from T10 to T12. The least splanchnic nerve (least SN) 38 isformed by fibers from T12. The GSN 34 is typically present bilaterallyin animals, including humans, with the other splanchnic nerves having amore variable pattern. The splanchnic nerves run along theanterior-lateral aspect of the vertebral bodies, pass out of the thorax,and enter the abdomen through the diaphragm 40. The splanchnic nervesrun in proximity to the azygous veins (not shown). Once in the abdomen,neurons of the GSN 34 synapse with postganglionic neurons primarily inceliac ganglia 42. Some neurons of the GSN 34 pass through the celiacganglia 42 and synapse in the adrenal medulla 44 (FIG. 5) (not shown indetail). Neurons of the lesser SN 36 (FIG. 3) and least SN 38 synapsewith post-ganglionic neurons in the mesenteric ganglia, such as thesuperior mesenteric ganglion 46 and the inferior mesenteric ganglion 48(FIG. 5).

Postganglionic neurons, arising from the celiac ganglia 42 (FIG. 3) thatsynapse with the GSN 34, innervate primarily the upper digestive system,including the stomach, pylorus, duodenum, pancreas, and liver. Inaddition, blood vessels and adipose tissue of the abdomen are innervatedby neurons arising from the celiac ganglia 42 and GSN 34. Postganglionicneurons of the mesenteric ganglia, supplied by preganglionic neurons ofthe lesser and least splanchnic nerve 36 and 38, innervate primarily thelower intestine, colon, rectum, kidneys, bladder, and sexual organs, andthe blood vessels that supply these organs and tissues.

FIG. 4 illustrates the renal vasculature 30, including the ureters 68and 70. The left and right kidneys 50 and 52 are located lateral to thevertebral column between the last thoracic and third lumbar vertebrae oneach side. The superior surface of the right kidney 52 is situatedinferior to the superior surface of the left kidney 50. The position ofthe kidneys 50 and 52 in the abdominal cavity is maintained by theoverlying peritoneum, contact with adjacent visceral organs, andsupporting connective tissues. Each of the kidneys 50 and 52 isprotected and stabilized by three concentric layers of connective tissue(i.e., the renal capsule, the adipose capsule, and the renal fascia).

The kidneys 50 and 52 receive 20-25% of the total cardiac output. Innormal individuals, about 1200 mL of blood flows through the kidneys 50and 52 each minute. Each of the kidneys 50 and 52 receives blood fromleft and right renal arteries 54 and 56, respectively, that originatealong the lateral surface of the abdominal aorta 58 near the level ofthe superior mesenteric artery 60 (FIG. 3). For the purposes of thepresent invention and for ease of reference, the left and right renalarteries 54 and 56 may each be segmented into proximal 61, medial 63,and distal 65 portions (FIG. 4). As the renal arteries 54 and 56 enterthe renal sinuses (not shown), they branch into the segmental arteries(not shown). The segmental arteries further divide into a series ofinterlobular arteries (not shown) that radiate outward, penetrating therenal capsule and extending through the renal columns (not shown)between the renal pyramids (not shown). The interlobular arteries supplyblood to the arcuate arteries (not shown) that parallel the boundarybetween the cortex (not shown) and medulla (not shown) of the kidneys 50and 52. Each arcuate artery gives rise to a number of interlobulararteries supplying portions of the adjacent renal lobe. Numerousafferent arterioles (not shown) branch from each interlobular artery tosupply individual nephrons (not shown). From the nephrons, blood entersa network of venules (not shown) and small veins (not shown) thatconverge on the interlobular veins (not shown). In a mirror image of thearterial distribution, the interlobular veins deliver blood to arcuateveins (not shown) that empty into further interlobular veins. Theinterlobular veins merge to form the renal veins 62 and 64, which draininto the inferior vena cava 66.

FIG. 5 illustrates sympathetic innervation of the renal vasculature 30.The kidneys 50 and 52 are innervated by renal nerves 72. Most of thenerves 72 involved are sympathetic postganglionic fibers from thesuperior mesenteric ganglion 46. Renal nerves 72 enter each of thekidneys 50 and 52 at the hilum 74 and follow the branches of the renalarteries 54 and 56 to reach individual nephrons. Other renal ganglia,such as the celiac ganglia 42, the superior mesenteric ganglion 46, theleft and right aorticorenal ganglia 76 and 78, and the inferiormesenteric ganglion 48 also innervate the renal vasculature 30. Knownfunctions of sympathetic innervation include: (1) regulation of renalblood flow and pressure; (2) stimulation of renin release; and (3)direct stimulation of water and sodium ion reabsorption.

To address the problems of renal disease and diseases or conditionsassociated with renal disease, the present invention provides anapparatus 10 (FIG. 1) and method for renal neuromodulation. Moreparticularly, the present invention provides an apparatus 10 and methodfor modulating renal function via the SNS, the PNS, or a combinationthereof. Examples of renal function that can be modulated by the presentinvention include, but are not limited to, renal excretion, renalelimination, and homeostatic regulation.

Referring to FIG. 1, the apparatus 10 of the present invention comprisesan expandable support member 12 for engaging a wall of a blood vesseland for modulating renal function. As used herein, the term “modulate”or “modulating” refers to causing a change in neuronal activity,chemistry, and/or metabolism without ablating or destroying nervestructure. The change can refer to an increase, decrease, or even achange in a pattern of neuronal activity. For example, efferent nerveactivity and/or afferent nerve activity of the SNS, PNS, PNS and SNS, orsomatic nervous system can be modulated by the present invention. Theterm may refer to either excitatory or inhibitory stimulation, or acombination thereof, and may be at least electrical, biological,magnetic, optical or chemical, or a combination of two or more of these.The term “modulate” can also be used to refer to a masking, altering,overriding, or restoring of neuronal activity. It will be appreciatedthat the same or different apparatus 10 can be used to modulate neuronalactivity of a first nerve in one manner and the neuronal activity of asecond nerve in a different manner.

As shown in FIG. 1, the expandable support member 12 includes oppositelydisposed first and second end portions 24 and 26 and a main body portion14 extending between the end portions. The structure of the expandablesupport member 12 may be a mesh, a zigzag wire, a spiral wire, anexpandable stent, or other similar configuration that allows theexpandable support member to be collapsed and expanded. The expandablesupport member 12 can be comprised of a material having a high modulusof elasticity, including, for example, cobalt-nickel alloys (e.g.,Elgiloy), titanium, nickel-titanium alloys (e.g., Nitinol),cobalt-chromium alloys (e.g., Stellite),nickel-cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloys (e.g., MP35N), graphite,ceramic, stainless steel, and hardened plastics. The expandable supportmember 12 may also be made of a radio-opaque material or includeradio-opaque markers to facilitate fluoroscopic visualization.

The flexible and expandable properties of the expandable support member12 facilitate percutaneous delivery of the expandable support member,while also allowing the expandable support member to conform to aportion of a blood vessel. An expanded configuration of the expandablesupport member 12 is shown in FIG. 1. In the expanded configuration, theexpandable support member 12 has a circular cross-sectional shape forconforming to the circular cross-sectional shape of the blood vessellumen. By conforming to the shape of the blood vessel lumen, theexpanded configuration of the expandable support member 12 facilitatesmovement of the blood flow therethrough while also maintaining lumenpatency.

At least one constraining band 28 may be placed around the circumferenceof the expandable support member 12 to maintain the expandable supportmember in the collapsed configuration. As shown in FIG. 13, theconstraining bands 28 may comprise sutures, for example, and may beplaced around the circumference of the expandable support member 12 asneeded. Removal of the constraining bands 28 allows the expandablesupport member 12 to self-expand and obtain the expanded configuration.Where the constraining bands 28 comprise sutures, for example, thesutures may be manually broken or, alternatively, broken by the radialforce generated when the expandable support member 12 self-expands. Itwill be appreciated that the constraining bands 28 may comprise anyother type of material capable of being selectively modified. Forexample, the constraining bands 28 may be made of a shape memory alloy,such as Nitinol, which can be selectively modified (i.e., expanded) bydelivering energy (e.g., thermal energy) to allow the expandable supportmember 12 to obtain the expanded configuration.

The expandable support member 12 (FIG. 1) also includes at least onefenestration 20 and at least one branch member 22. As shown in FIG. 1,and more clearly shown in FIG. 10, the fenestrations 20 include a holeor opening disposed about the main body portion 14 of the expandablesupport member 12. FIG. 1 illustrates an expandable support member 12having two fenestrations 20; however, it will be appreciated that theexpandable support member may include any number of fenestrationsdisposed about the main body portion 14.

As shown in FIG. 1, the expandable support member 12 also includes twobranch members 22. The branch members 22 are constructed in an identicalor substantially identical fashion as the main body portion 14 of theexpandable support member 12, and include first and second end portions23 and 25. The first end portion 23 of each of the branch members 22 isanastomosed with the fenestrations 20 such that the lumen of each of thebranch members is in fluid communication with the lumen of the main bodyportion 14. As described in more detail below, the first end portion 23of each of the branch members 22 may be anastomosed with thefenestrations 20 using any one or combination of techniques known in theart. Means for anastomosing the first end portion 23 of each of thebranch members 22 to the fenestrations include 20, but are not limitedto, sutures, clips, staples, pins, adhesives, and the like. Although theexpandable support member 12 of FIG. 1 is shown with two branch members22, it should be appreciated that any number of branch members may beincluded with the expandable support member.

The expandable support member 12 also includes at least one electrode 16for delivering an electric current to a desired location. As shown inFIG. 1, the electrodes 16 have a flat, disc-like shape and are radiallydisposed about the circumference of the expandable support member 12 ina multi-electrode array configuration. It will be appreciated, however,that the electrodes 16 may have any shape and size, including, forexample, a triangular shape, a rectangular shape, an ovoid shape, and/ora band-like shape (e.g., a split band configuration), and are notlimited to the shapes and sizes illustrated in FIG. 1. The electrodes 16may be configured so that the expandable support member 12 has aunipolar construction (FIG. 6A) using the surround tissue as ground or,alternatively, a bipolar construction using leads connected to eitherend of the expandable support member (FIG. 7A). The electrodes 16 may bemade of any material capable of conducting an electrical current, suchas platinum, platinum-iridium, or the like.

As shown in FIG. 1, the electrodes 16 can extend around only a portionor the entire circumference of the expandable support member 12 in aradial fashion. Alternatively, the electrodes 16 may extend around onlya portion or the entire circumference of the expandable support member12 in a sinusoidal or helical fashion (FIG. 7A). The entire length ofthe expandable support member 12 may be covered with the electrodes 16or, alternatively, only a portion of the expandable support member, suchas the first end portion 24 (FIG. 9), may be covered with theelectrodes. Additionally, it will be appreciated that the electrodes 16may extend around only the main body portion 14 or, alternatively, onlyaround the branch members 22 (FIG. 10).

To facilitate focal delivery of electrical energy to a desired location,the electrodes 16 may wrap around the expandable support member 12 anynumber of times to establish a desired electrode contact and coverage.Additionally or optionally, the entire surface area of the electrodes 16may be conductive or, alternatively, only a portion of the surface areaof the electrodes may be conductive. By modifying the conductivity ofthe surface of the electrodes 16, the surface area of the electrodesthat contact the blood vessel wall may be selectively modified tofacilitate focal delivery of electrical energy to the desired location.

Electrical energy can be delivered to the electrodes 16 using a varietyof internal, passive, or active energy sources 80 (FIGS. 6A-8B). Theenergy source 80 may include, for example, radio frequency (RF) energy,X-ray energy, microwave energy, acoustic or ultrasound energy such asfocused ultrasound or high intensity focused ultrasound energy, lightenergy, electric field energy, magnetic field energy, piezoelectric,combinations of the same, or the like (see, e.g., U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 12/016,115, the entirety of which is herebyincorporated by reference). Another example of an energy source 80 caninclude a magnetic powering mechanism (not shown) which may be worn as abelt or waistband.

As shown in FIG. 7A, an energy source 80 may be directly coupled ortethered to the apparatus 10 using an electrical lead 82. The electricallead 82 may be disposed in an adjacent blood vessel, such as theinferior vena cava 66, and travel down the length of the inferior venacava to a remote entry site (not shown). Alternatively, as shown in FIG.8A, electrical energy may be supplied to the electrodes 16 via aturbine-like mechanism 84 operatively disposed in the lumen of theexpandable support member 12. As blood flows through the lumen of theexpandable support member 12, the turbine mechanism 84 generateselectrical energy which may then be delivered to the electrodes 16.Further, the energy source 80 may be wirelessly coupled to the apparatus10 as shown in FIG. 6A.

It will be appreciated that the energy source 80 can include arechargeable battery (not shown) that is operably coupled to theapparatus 10. For example, an external charger (not shown) can beinductively coupled to a charging circuit (not shown) that is operablycoupled to the apparatus 10 to recharge the battery. The externalcharger can include a charging coil energizable to create anelectromagnetic field that in turn induces current in a correspondingcoil within the charging circuit. The coil may be mounted to a waistpack, wearable skin-contacting/adhering patch, purse, backpack, orwheelchair cushion, for example, so that it can be carried by thepatient in sufficient proximity to the charging circuit. Alternatively,the coil may be positioned within a pad positionable on a patient'smattress, allowing for charging of the battery while the patient rests.

Electrical energy can be delivered to the electrodes 16 continuously,periodically, episodically, or a combination thereof. For example,electrical energy can be delivered in a unipolar, bipolar, and/ormultipolar sequence or, alternatively, via a sequential wave,charge-balanced biphasic square wave, sine wave, or any combinationthereof. Electrical energy can be delivered to all the electrodes 16 atonce or, alternatively, to only a select number of desired electrodes.The particular voltage, current, and frequency delivered to theelectrodes 16 may be varied as needed. For example, electrical energycan be delivered to the electrodes 16 at a constant voltage (e.g., atabout 0.1 v to about 25 v), at a constant current (e.g., at about 25microamps to about 50 milliamps), at a constant frequency (e.g., atabout 5 Hz to about 10,000 Hz), and at a constant pulse-width (e.g., atabout 50 μsec to about 10,000 μsec).

Delivery of electrical energy to a select number of electrodes 16 may beaccomplished via a controller (not shown), for example, operablyattached to the apparatus 10. The controller may comprise an electricaldevice which operates like a router by selectively controlling deliveryof electrical energy to the electrodes 16. For example, the controllermay vary the frequency or frequencies of the electrical energy beingdelivered to the electrodes 16. By selectively controlling delivery ofelectrical energy to the electrodes 16, the controller can facilitatefocal delivery of electrical energy to a desired location.

It should be appreciated that means other than electrical energy, suchas chemical or biological means, may also be used for renalneuromodulation. For example, the apparatus 10 may include at least onepharmacological agent for eluting into the vascular tissue and/or bloodstream. The pharmacological agent may be capable of preventing a varietyof pathological conditions including, but not limited to, hypertension,hypotension, anemia, thrombosis, stenosis and inflammation. Accordingly,the pharmacological agent may include at least one of a diuretic agent,an anti-anemia agent, an anti-hypertensive, an anti-hypotensive agent,an anticoagulant, an antioxidant, a fibrinolytic, a steroid, ananti-apoptotic agent, and an anti-inflammatory agent. Another example ofa pharmacological agent includes botulinum toxin (e.g., BOTOX).

Optionally or additionally, the pharmacological agent may be capable oftreating or preventing other diseases or disease processes such asmicrobial infections. In these instances, the pharmacological agent mayinclude an anti-microbial agent and/or a biological agent such as acell, peptide, or nucleic acid. The pharmacological agent can be simplylinked to the surface of the apparatus 10, embedded and released fromwithin polymer materials, such as a polymer matrix, or surrounded by andreleased through a carrier.

Referring again to FIG. 1, the expandable support member 12 additionallycomprises an insulative material 18 for isolating blood flow through thevessel from the electric current. More particularly, the insulativematerial 18 serves as an electrical insulator, separating electricalenergy from blood flow and facilitating delivery of electrical energy tothe vessel wall. The insulative material 18 is disposed radially inwardof the electrodes 16 and extends along the entire length of theexpandable support member 12. Alternatively, the insulative material 18may be attached to select portions of the expandable support member 12,such as only the second end portion 26 and part of the main body portion14. The insulative material 18 may be disposed between the electrodes 16and the expandable support member 12 (FIG. 7B) disposed about the lumenof the expandable support member (FIGS. 6B and 8B), or, alternatively,extend the entire length of the expandable support member (not shown).The insulative material 18 generally has a low electrical conductivityand a non-thrombogenic surface. The insulative material 18 can includematerials such as PTFE, ePTFE, silicone, silicone-based materials, andthe like.

In addition to the insulative layer 18, at least a portion of theexpandable support member 12 may optionally include a layer (not shown)of biocompatible material. The layer of biocompatible material may besynthetic such as DACRON (Invista, Wichita, Kans.), GORE-TEX (W. L. Gore& Associates, Flagstaff, Ariz.), woven velour, polyurethane, orheparin-coated fabric. Alternatively, the layer of biocompatiblematerial may be a biological material such as bovine or equinepericardium, peritoneal tissue, an allograft, a homograft, patientgraft, or a cell-seeded tissue. The biocompatible layer can cover eitherthe luminal surface of the expandable support member 12, the non-luminalsurface of the expandable support member, or can be wrapped around boththe luminal and non-luminal surfaces. The biocompatible layer may beattached around the entire circumference of the expandable supportmember 12 or, alternatively, may be attached in pieces or interruptedsections to allow the expandable support member to more easily expandand contract.

The apparatus 10 can be part of an open- or closed-loop system. In anopen-loop system, for example, a physician or subject may, at any time,manually or by the use of pumps, motorized elements, etc. adjusttreatment parameters such as pulse amplitude, pulse width, pulsefrequency, or duty cycle. Alternatively, in a closed-loop system,electrical parameters may be automatically adjusted in response to asensed symptom or a related symptom indicative of the extent of therenal disease being treated. In a closed-loop feedback system, a sensor108 (FIG. 6A) that senses a condition (e.g., a metabolic parameter ofinterest) of the body can be utilized. More detailed descriptions ofsensors 108 that may be employed in a closed-loop system, as well asother examples of sensors and feedback control techniques that may beemployed are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,716,377, the entirety of whichis hereby incorporated by reference.

Although described in more detail below, it should be appreciated thatincorporating the apparatus 10 as part of a closed-loop system caninclude placing the apparatus in a blood vessel adjacent a desiredlocation, detecting a bodily activity associated with a renal disease,and then activating the apparatus to apply electric current to thedesired location in response to the detected bodily activity. Suchbodily activity can include any characteristic or function of the body,such as renal blood flow or renal volume, urine output, urine chemistry,urine osmolarity, plasma renin, plasma angiotensin, urine pH, specificgravity, urine protein content, urine blood content, urine ketonecontent, respiratory function (e.g., respiratory rate), bodytemperature, blood pressure, metabolic activity such as fluid glucoselevels, hormone levels, enzyme or enzyme byproduct levels, and/ornitrogen, oxygen and/or carbon dioxide levels, body temperature,cerebral blood flow, pH levels (e.g., in blood, tissue, and other bodilyfluids), galvanic skin responses (e.g., perspiration),electrocardiogram, muscle tone in the diaphragm and other muscles,electroencephalogram, nerve action potential, body movement, response toexternal stimulation, speech, motor activity, ocular activity, cognitivefunction, and the like.

It should be appreciated that an override mechanism (not shown) foroverriding a closed-loop system can also be included as part of thepresent invention. For example, where a patient is diagnosed withcongestive heart failure, the override mechanism could be used tooverride the closed-loop system and permit dieresis of the patient.

Another embodiment of the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 11.In FIG. 11, an apparatus 10 _(a) for renal neuromodulation is provided.The apparatus 10 _(a) is identical to the apparatus 10 illustrated inFIG. 1, except where as described below. In FIG. 11, structures that areidentical as structures in FIG. 1 use the same reference numbers,whereas structures that are similar but not identical carry the suffix“a”.

As shown in FIG. 11, the apparatus 10 _(a) comprises an expandablesupport member 12 _(a) having a main body portion 14 _(a) for engaging awall of a blood vessel proximate a renal vasculature 30. The expandablesupport member 12 _(a) includes at least one electrode 16 arranged toselectively deliver electric current to a desired location wheremodulation of the SNS is effective to alter renal function.Additionally, the expandable support member 12 _(a) includes aninsulative material 18 attached to at least a portion of the main bodyportion 14 _(a). As discussed above, the insulative material 18 is forisolating blood flow through the vessel from the electric currentdelivered by the electrodes 16. The expandable support member 12 _(a)may also include at least one fenestration 20 as illustrated in FIG. 12.

Another embodiment of the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 13.In FIG. 13, an apparatus 10 _(b) for renal neuromodulation is provided.The apparatus 10 _(b) is identical to the apparatus 10 _(a) illustratedin FIG. 11, except where as described below. In FIG. 13, structures thatare identical as structures in FIG. 11 use the same reference numbers,whereas structures that are similar but not identical carry the suffix“b”.

As shown in FIG. 13, the apparatus 10 _(b) comprises an expandablesupport member 12 _(b) having a main body portion 14 _(b) for engaging awall of a blood vessel proximate a renal vasculature 30. The expandablesupport member 12 _(b) includes at least one electrode 16 arranged toselectively deliver electric current to a desired location wheremodulation of the SNS is effective to alter renal function.Additionally, the expandable support member 12 _(b) includes at leastone wireless module 86 capable of receiving electrical energy fordelivery to the electrodes 16. It should be appreciated that theapparatus 10 _(b) shown in FIG. 13 may include other components, such asfenestrations 20 and branch members 22.

The wireless module 86 may be operably coupled to the expandable supportmember 12 _(b) as shown in FIG. 13. The wireless module 86 may comprisean electrical device which operates like a router by selectivelycontrolling delivery of electrical energy to the electrodes 16. Forexample, the wireless module 86 may vary the frequency or frequencies ofthe electrical energy being delivered to the electrodes 16. Byselectively controlling delivery of electrical energy to the electrodes16, the wireless module 86 can facilitate focal delivery of electricalenergy to a desired location. Alternatively, the wireless module 86 maypassively distribute electrical energy to the electrodes 16.

To address the problems of renal disease and conditions associated withrenal disease, the present invention provides a method for renalneuromodulation using a minimally invasive, laparoscopic, cystoscopic,uretoroscopic, open surgical, percutaneous, or endovascular approach. Itshould be appreciated, however, that a minimally invasive surgicalapproach may also be used. According to the present invention, anapparatus 10, or only a portion of an apparatus, is positionedsubstantially adjacent a desired location in a blood vessel. Forpurposes of illustration only, the present invention is described withreference to the apparatus 10 being positioned in the renal arteries 54and 56 and in the abdominal aorta 58 proximate the renal arteries. Itwill be appreciated, however, that the apparatus 10 may additionally oroptionally be placed at other desired locations, such as in the renalveins 62 and 64, the inferior vena cava 66 proximate the renal veins,the superior mesenteric artery 60, and/or the celiac artery 88 (FIG. 3).

Prior to use of the apparatus 10 (FIG. 1), the dimensions of the leftand right renal arteries 54 and 56, as well as the dimension of theabdominal aorta 58 proximate the renal arteries will need to bedetermined. Various methods and devices for determining the dimensionsof the abdominal aorta 58 and renal arteries 54 and 56 are known in theart and include, for example, computed tomography, magnetic resonanceimaging, angiography and fluoroscopy. After determining the dimensionsof the left and right renal arteries 54 and 56 and the abdominal aorta58 proximate the renal arteries, an appropriately-sized apparatus 10 ischosen. The apparatus 10 is suitably sized, for example, so that thedimensions of the main body portion 14 of the expandable support member12 in the expanded configuration correspond to the dimensions of theabdominal aorta 58 proximate the renal arteries 54 and 56. Additionally,the apparatus 10 is suitably sized so that dimensions of the branchmembers 22 in the expanded configuration correspond to the dimensions ofthe renal arteries 54 and 56.

Percutaneous placement of the apparatus 10 starts by accessing a bodilyvessel with a delivery device. For instance, a first guidewire 90 (FIG.14) may be introduced into the vasculature via a vascular opening orincision (not shown). Vascular access may be through a peripheralarterial access site (not shown), such as a left femoral artery 92. Thefirst guidewire 90 is inserted through the incision into the leftfemoral artery 92 in an antegrade direction. Alternatively, the firstguidewire 90 may be inserted into the brachlocephalic artery (not shown)from an incision in the left subclavian artery (not shown) or leftbrachial artery (not shown) in a retrograde direction, or in aretrograde direction through the right subclavian artery (not shown),and then advanced toward the abdominal aorta 58. The first guidewire 90is then urged into the abdominal aorta 58 proximate the renal arteries54 and 56 as shown in FIG. 14.

Next, the main body portion 14 of the expandable support member 12 isplaced in a first delivery catheter 94 in a collapsed configuration andsecurely attached to a proximal end (not shown) of the first guidewire90. The first delivery catheter 94 is then advanced over the firstguidewire 90 as shown in FIG. 15. The first delivery catheter 94 isadvanced until the first delivery catheter is suitably positioned in theabdominal aorta 58 proximate the renal arteries 54 and 56. Inparticular, the main body portion 14 is positioned such that each of thefenestrations 20 is adjacent the ostium of each of the left and rightrenal arteries 54 and 56. Additionally, the main body portion 14 ispositioned such that at least a portion of the main body portion ispositioned substantially adjacent a desired target. For example, aportion of the main body portion 14 having a focal arrangement ofelectrodes 16 is positioned substantially adjacent the superiormesenteric ganglion 46 (FIG. 16).

Once the main body portion 14 of the expandable support member 12 isappropriately positioned in the abdominal aorta 58 proximate the renalarteries 54 and 56, the first delivery catheter 94 is removed and theconstraining bands 28 are progressively released (i.e., broken) by theradial force generated by the self-expanding main body portion. Itshould be appreciated that the expandable support member 12 may also beexpanded via other means, such as an expandable balloon (not shown).When all of the constraining bands 28 have been released, the main bodyportion 14 obtains the expanded configuration and is securely positionedin the abdominal aorta 58 proximate the renal arteries 54 and 56. Withthe main body portion 14 securely positioned in the abdominal aorta 58,the first guidewire 90 is then removed from the vasculature.

As shown in FIG. 16, second and third guidewires 96 and 98 are theninserted into the left femoral artery 92 and advanced in an antegradedirection. The second and third guidewires 96 and 98 are advanced sothat the second and third guidewires respectively extend into the leftand right renal arteries 54 and 56. Next, first and second branchmembers 100 and 102 are respectively placed in second and third deliverycatheters 104 and 106 in a collapsed configuration and securely attachedto the proximal ends (not shown) of the second and third guidewires 96and 98. The second and third delivery catheters 104 and 106 are thenrespectively advanced in an antegrade direction over the second andthird guidewires 96 and 98 as shown in FIG. 16. The second and thirddelivery catheters 104 and 106 are next respectively advanced throughthe lumen of the main body portion 14, through the fenestrations 20, andinto the left and right renal arteries 54 and 56.

After delivery to the left and right renal arteries 54 and 56, the firstand second branch members 100 and 102 are positioned such that eachbranch member is substantially adjacent a desired location. As shown inFIG. 17, for example, the first and second branch members 100 and 102are positioned so that the electrodes 16 of each of the branch membersis located in the proximal portion 61 of each of the left and rightrenal arteries 54 and 56. Consequently, the electrodes 16 of each of thefirst and second branch members 100 and 102 are positioned substantiallyadjacent the left and right aorticorenal ganglion 76 and 78,respectively. It should be appreciated that the arrangement of theelectrodes 16 on each the branch members 22 may be varied to selectivelydeliver electrical energy to different portions of the renal arteries 54and 56. For example, the electrodes 16 of the branch members 22 may bearranged so that electrical energy can be delivered to the medial 63and/or distal portion 65 of each of the renal arteries 54 and 56 andthus deliver electrical energy to select renal nerves 72.

Once the first and second branch members 100 and 102 are appropriatelypositioned, the second and third delivery catheters 104 and 106 areremoved and the constraining bands 28 are progressively released (i.e.,broken) by the radial force generated by the self-expanding branchmembers. When all of the constraining bands 28 have been released, thefirst and second branch members 100 and 102 each obtain the expandedconfiguration and are securely positioned in the left and right renalarteries 54 and 56, respectively.

With the first and second branch members 100 and 102 respectivelypositioned in the left and right renal arteries 54 and 56, the first endportion 23 of each of the branch members is anastomosed with thecorresponding fenestration 20 using, for example, sutures or ties (FIG.17). The first and second branch members 100 and 102 are securelyanastomosed with the fenestrations 20 such that the lumen of each of thebranch members is in fluid communication with the lumen of the main bodyportion 14. It will be appreciated that other methods known in the artmay be used to securely anastomose the first and second branch members100 and 102 with the fenestrations 20. Examples of such methods aredisclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,827,735 and U.S. Pat. Pub. No.2006/0247761, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in itsentirety.

After the first and second branch members 100 and 102 are positioned inthe left and right arteries 54 and 56, respectively, the second andthird guidewires 96 and 98 are removed from the vasculature. Next,electrical energy, such as RF energy, may be delivered to the apparatus10 via a wirelessly coupled energy source 80 as shown in FIG. 17. Aselectrical energy is delivered to the apparatus 10, the electrodes 16conduct the electrical energy to the vascular wall at the desiredlocations and thereby cause nerves associated with the desired locationsto fire action potentials. Electrical energy delivered to the electrodes16 on the main body portion 14, for example, causes the superiormesenteric ganglion 46 to fire action potentials. The action potentialsare then relayed to efferent nerve fibers, which emanate from thesuperior mesenteric ganglion 46 and innervate the efferent and afferentarterioles (not shown) of the kidneys 50 and 52.

Depending upon the desired neuromodulatory effect, electrical energy maybe delivered to the electrodes 16 so that the efferent and/or afferentarterioles are either activated, inhibited, or alternately activated andinhibited. For example, electrical energy may be delivered to theelectrodes 16 to cause constriction of the efferent arterioles which, inturn, may increase renal filtration and urine production. Alternatively,electrical energy may be delivered to the electrodes 16 to causeconstriction of the afferent arterioles and thereby reduce renalfiltration and urine production. Further, electrical energy may bedelivered to the electrodes 16 to cause constriction of the efferentarterioles while alternately reducing or inhibiting constriction of theafferent arterioles and, thus, increase renal filtration and urineproduction.

Additionally or optionally, electrical energy may be delivered to theelectrodes 16 to modulate the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system(RAAS). The RAAS regulates renal vasomotor activity, maintains optimalsalt and water homeostasis, and controls tissue growth in the kidneys 50and 52. RAAS function is controlled by the SNS and, in particular, SNSmodulation of juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) cells. The JGA cells formpart of the wall of the afferent arterioles and secrete renin inresponse to various stimuli. In the kidneys 50 and 52, renin convertsangiotensin to angiotensin I, which is then converted to angiotensin IIby angiotensin converting enzyme in the lungs (not shown). AngiotensinII in turn causes water retention by two mechanisms: directly acting ontubules (not shown) to promote sodium and water reabsorption; andindirectly stimulating aldosterone secretion in the adrenal cortex (notshown).

Pathologic consequences can result from overactivity of the RAAS, thusinvolving the RAAS in the pathophysiology of kidney disease. Anactivated RAAS promotes both systemic and glomerular capillaryhypertension, which can induce hemodynamic injury to the vascularendothelium and glomerulus. Dysfunction of the RAAS is also implicatedin congestive heart failure and chronic renal failure.

Accordingly, electrical energy may be delivered to the electrodes 16 toeffect a change in the RAAS. As described below, delivering electricalenergy to the electrodes 16 may in turn alter renal function and thus beuseful for treating conditions related to or caused by renaldysfunction, such as hypertension, for example. Electrical energy can bedelivered to the electrodes 16 to decrease or inhibit nerve conductionfrom the superior mesenteric ganglion 46 to select efferent nervefibers. A decrease or inhibition of nerve conduction from the superiormesenteric ganglion 46 will decrease or inhibit activity of the JGAcells and, thus, decrease or inhibit renin production. As a result of adecrease in renin production, the RAAS will be altered and thereby leadto a decrease in blood pressure. It will be appreciated that modulatingthe SNS, and thus altering the RAAS, may be useful for treating not onlyhypertension, but also any number of other renal diseases or conditionsassociated therewith, such as congestive heart failure, chronic renalfailure, and the like.

During delivery of electrical energy to the apparatus 10, at least onemetabolic parameter of interest, such as blood chemistry, blood-sodiumcontent, or urine chemistry may be measured via a sensor 108 (FIG. 6A).The sensor 108 may comprise any suitable device that measures ormonitors a parameter indicative of the need to modify the activity ofthe apparatus 10. For example, the sensor 108 may comprise a physiologictransducer or gauge that measures blood pressure (systolic, diastolic,average or pulse pressure), blood volumetric flow rate, blood flowvelocity, blood pH, O₂ or CO₂ content, nitrogen content, hemodynamicfactors (e.g., renin/angiotensin, blood glucose, inflammatory mediators,tissue factors, etc.), mixed venous oxygen saturation (SVO₂),vasoactivity, nerve activity, and tissue activity or composition.

The sensor 108 may be separate from the apparatus 10 or combinedtherewith (FIG. 6A). The sensor 108 may also be positioned in/on a bloodvessel and/or organ, such as in a chamber of the heart (not shown), orin/on a major artery, such as the abdominal aorta 58, such that theparameter of interest may be readily ascertained. It will be appreciatedthat the sensor 108 can also be used to detect various urine-associatedparameters of interest, such as urine output, urine chemistry, urineosmolarity, urine pH, urine protein content, urine blood content, andurine ketone content. Additionally, it will be appreciated that thesensor 108 may be used to detect a metabolic parameter of interestassociated with the pulmonary system. Examples of such pulmonaryparameters of interest, as well as sensors that may be used to detectthe parameters are disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No.12/016,115.

An electrical stimulus regimen comprising a desired temporal and spatialdistribution of electrical energy to a desired location may be selectedto promote long-term efficacy of the present invention. To treat achronic renal disease, for example, it may be useful to delivercontinuous electrical energy to the apparatus 10. Alternatively, wherean acute renal disease is being treated, it may useful to temporarilydeliver electrical energy to the apparatus 10. It is theorized thatuninterrupted or otherwise unchanging delivery of electrical energy to adesired location may result in associated nerves becoming lessresponsive over time, thereby diminishing the long-term effectiveness ofthe therapy. Therefore, the electrical stimulus regimen may be selectedto activate, deactivate, or otherwise modulate the apparatus 10 in sucha way that therapeutic efficacy is maintained for a desired period oftime.

In addition to maintaining therapeutic efficacy over time, theelectrical stimulus regimen may be selected to reduce the powerrequirement/consumption of the present invention. For example, theelectrical stimulus regimen may dictate that the apparatus 10 beinitially activated at a relatively higher energy and/or power level,and then subsequently activated at a relatively lower energy and/orpower level. The first level attains the desired initial therapeuticeffect, and the second (lower) level sustains the desired therapeuticeffect long term. By reducing the energy and/or power levels after thedesired therapeutic effect is initially attained, the energy required orconsumed by the apparatus 10 is also reduced long-term.

It should be appreciated that unwanted collateral stimulation ofadjacent tissues may be limited by creating localized cells orelectrical fields (i.e., by limiting the electrical field beyond adesired location). Localized cells may be created by, for example,spacing the electrodes 16 very close together or biasing the electricalfield with conductors (not shown) and/or magnetic fields. For example,electrical fields may be localized or shaped by using electrodes 16 withdifferent geometries, by using one or more multiple electrodes, and/orby modifying the frequency, pulse-width, voltage, stimulation waveforms,paired pulses, sequential pulses, and/or combinations thereof.

It should also be appreciated that more than one apparatus 10 may beused to modulate the SNS. For example, it may be desirable to modulatethe celiac ganglia 42 via an electrical field by placing one apparatus10 in the abdominal aorta 58 proximate the renal arteries 54 and 56 andanother apparatus in the inferior vena cava 66 proximate the renal veins62 and 64. With this arrangement, the electrical field created betweenthe two apparatus 10 may be used to modulate SNS activity at the celiacganglia 42. As shown in FIG. 18, it will be further appreciated that twobranch members 22 can be respectively placed in the left and right renalarteries 54 and 56.

Although the above method is described in terms of modulating the SNS totreat a renal disease, it will be appreciated that the method of thepresent invention may also include modulation of the PNS or both the SNSand the PNS. Components of the PNS that can be modulated according tothe present invention include, but are not limited to, descendingcomponents of the vagus nerve, pre-ganglionic PNS fibers traveling withSNS fibers in the celiac plexus, the aortico-renal ganglion, andascending PNS inputs into the kidney(s) (e.g., from the sacral plexusand the pelvic splanchnic nerves with inputs from the inferiorhypogastric plexus, the superior hypogastric plexus, and theintermesenteric plexus).

In another embodiment of the present invention, a method for renalneuromodulation is provided. As shown in FIG. 19, the method includesimplanting an expandable support member 12 _(a) and a branch member 22at first and second desired locations, respectively, so that at least aportion of each of the expandable support member and the branch memberare positioned substantially adjacent the first and second desiredlocations. As shown in FIG. 19, the first desired location includes theabdominal aorta 58 proximate the renal arteries 54 and 56, and thesecond desired location includes the left renal artery. The expandablesupport member 12 _(a) may be identically constructed as the expandablesupport member in FIG. 12, and the branch member 22 may be identicallyconstructed as the branch members in FIG. 1, except where as describedbelow.

As shown in FIG. 19, at least one magnetic member 110 may be securelyattached to each of the expandable support member 12 _(a) and the branchmember 22. The magnetic member 110 may be made of any one or combinationof known electromagnetic materials including, for example, iron, NdFeB,SmCO and Alnico. The magnetic member 110 may be securely attached toeach of the expandable support member 12 _(a) and the branch member 22using any suitable means known in the art including, for example,soldering, staples, clips, sutures, and/or adhesives. The magneticmember 110 may be attached to each of the expandable support member 12_(a) and the branch member 22 at any desired location, such as at thefirst and second end portions 24 and 26 of the expandable support memberand the first and second end portions 23 and 25 of the branch member.The magnetic member 110 may have any suitable shape or configurationincluding, for example, a circular shape, an ovoid shape, a square-likeshape, and/or a rectangular shape. Alternatively or additionally, themagnetic member 110 may have a ring-like shape to completely encirclethe expandable support member 12 and/or the branch member 22.

The expandable support member 12 _(a) and the branch member 22 may beimplanted at the first and second desired locations, respectively, usinga minimally invasive, percutaneous, or endovascular approach asdescribed above. The expandable support member 12 _(a) and the branchmember 22 may be respectively implanted in an arterial and venousvessel, in first and second arterial vessels, and/or in first and secondvenous vessels. As shown in FIG. 19, for example, the expandable supportmember 12 _(a) and the branch member 22 may be respectively implanted inan abdominal aorta 58 proximate the renal arteries 54 and 56 and a leftrenal artery 54 using a percutaneous approach (as described above).

After the expandable support member 12 _(a) and the branch member 22 aresecurely positioned at the first and second desired locations, anelectromagnetic force may be generated between the magnetic members 110connected to each of the expandable support member and the branchmember. As indicted by the directional lines in FIG. 19, the magneticmembers 110 are polarized upon placement and consequently generate anelectric current between one another. The electric current may bedistributed across the electrodes 16 of the expandable support member 12_(a) and the branch member 22 and then delivered to the first and seconddesired locations. By adjusting the size, number, and composition of themagnetic members 110, in addition to the position of the expandablesupport member 12 _(a) and the branch member 22, the magnitude anddirection of the electric current may be varied as needed.

In another embodiment of the present invention, a direct approach forrenal neuromodulation is provided. By “direct” it is meant that anapparatus 10 _(a) similar or identical to the apparatus of FIG. 11 canbe placed on or near at least one nerve capable of effecting a change inthe SNS, the PNS, the SNS and the PNS, or the somatic nervous system toalter renal function. A variety of surgical approaches may be used todirectly modulate renal function. Examples of such surgical approachesinclude, but are not limited to, open surgical approaches, laparoscopicapproaches, and percutaneous approaches.

Using laparoscopic surgery, for example, an apparatus 10 _(a) similar oridentical to the apparatus of FIG. 11 may be placed in a cuff-likemanner around a desired extravascular location, such as the proximalportion of the left renal artery 54 (FIG. 20). Electrical energy maythen be delivered to the electrodes 16 of the apparatus 10 _(a), therebymodulating efferent nerve fibers emanating from the left aorticorenalganglion 76 and thus altering renal function.

It will be appreciated that the apparatus 10 _(a) may be placed at otherdesired locations to directly modulation renal function. For example,the apparatus 10 _(a) may be placed at or near the cervical-thoracicsegments of the sympathetic ganglia, including both pre- andpost-ganglionic ganglia. Additionally or alternatively, the apparatus 10_(a) may be placed at or near the renal capsule, the adipose capsule, orthe renal fascia to directly modulate renal function.

From the above description of the invention, those skilled in the artwill perceive improvements, changes and modifications. Suchimprovements, changes, and modifications are within the skill of the artand are intended to be covered by the appended claims.

Having described the invention, we claim:
 1. An apparatus for renalneuromodulation, said apparatus comprising: an expandable support memberhaving a main body portion for engaging a wall of a blood vesselproximate a renal vasculature, said expandable support member includinga lumen defined by an inner circumferential surface and an outercircumferential surface, said lumen extending between oppositelydisposed first and second end portions of said expandable supportmember; at least one electrode connected with said main body portion,said at least one electrode arranged to selectively deliver electriccurrent to a desired location where modulation of the sympatheticnervous system (SNS) is effective to alter renal function; and aninsulative material attached to at least a portion of said expandablesupport member, said insulative material extending the entirelongitudinal length between said first and second end portions of saidexpandable support member, said insulative material extendingcircumferentially about the entirety of said inner circumferentialsurface of said expandable support member, said insulative material forisolating blood flow through the vessel from the electric currentdelivered by said at least one electrode.
 2. The apparatus of claim 1,wherein modulation of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) iseffective to alter renal function.
 3. The apparatus of claim 1, whereinmodulation of the PNS and the SNS is effective to alter renal function.4. The apparatus of claim 1, where said expandable support memberfurther includes at least one fenestration.
 5. The apparatus of claim 1,wherein said expandable support member further includes at least onebranch member for engaging a wall of a blood vessel in the renalvasculature, said at least one branch member comprising an expandablesupport member including first and second end portions and at least oneelectrode arranged to selectively deliver electric current to a desiredlocation where modulation of the SNS is effective to alter renalfunction, said first end portion being anastomosed with said at leastone fenestration.
 6. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said insulativematerial is disposed radially inward of said at least one electrode. 7.The apparatus of claim 6, wherein said expandable support member isdisposed radially inward of said insulative material.
 8. The apparatusof claim 6, wherein said insulative material is disposed radially inwardof said expandable support member.
 9. The apparatus of claim 6, whereinsaid at least one electrode is disposed radially inward of saidexpandable support member.
 10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the atleast one electrode is arranged to deliver a focal electric current tothe desired location.
 11. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein at least onemagnetic member for generating an electromagnetic field is securelyattached to said expandable support member.
 12. The apparatus of claim1, wherein said expandable support member further includes at least onepharmacological agent for chemically modulating the SNS.
 13. Theapparatus of claim 1, wherein said expandable support member furtherincludes at least one biological agent for biologically modulating theSNS.
 14. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein at least one sensor formeasuring at least one metabolic parameter of interest is securelyattached to said expandable support member.
 15. The apparatus of claim14, wherein said at least one sensor is positioned in or on a bloodvessel.
 16. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein said at least one sensoris positioned in or on an organ.
 17. An apparatus for renalneuromodulation, said apparatus comprising: an expandable support memberfor engaging a wall of a blood vessel proximate a renal vasculature,said expandable support member including a main body portion having atleast one fenestration and at least one branch member for engaging awall of a blood vessel in the renal vasculature, said at least onebranch member comprising an expandable support member having first andsecond end portions, said expandable support member of said at least onebranch member including a lumen that extends between said first andsecond end portions, said first end portion being anastomosed with saidat least one fenestration; at least one electrode connected with saidexpandable support member, said at least one electrode being arranged toselectively deliver electric current to a desired location wheremodulation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is effective to alterrenal function; and an insulative material attached to at least aportion of said expandable support member, said insulative material forisolating blood flow through the vessel from the electric currentdelivered by said at least one electrode.
 18. The apparatus of claim 17,wherein modulation of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) iseffective to alter renal function.
 19. The apparatus of claim 17,wherein modulation of the PNS and the SNS is effective to alter renalfunction.
 20. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein said at least oneelectrode is connected to each of said main body portion and said atleast one branch member.
 21. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein said atleast one electrode is connected to said main body portion.
 22. Theapparatus of claim 17, wherein said at least one electrode is connectedto said at least one branch member.
 23. The apparatus of claim 17,wherein said insulative material is disposed radially inward of said atleast one electrode.
 24. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein saidexpandable support member is disposed radially inward of said insulativematerial.
 25. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein said insulativematerial is disposed radially inward of said expandable support member.26. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein said at least one electrode isdisposed radially inward of said expandable support member.
 27. Theapparatus of claim 17, wherein said insulative material extends theentire length of said expandable support member.
 28. The apparatus ofclaim 17, wherein the at least one electrode is arranged to deliver afocal electric current to the desired location.
 29. The apparatus ofclaim 17, wherein at least one magnetic member for generating anelectromagnetic field is securely attached to said expandable supportmember.
 30. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein said expandable supportmember further includes at least one pharmacological agent forchemically modulating the SNS.
 31. The apparatus of claim 17, whereinsaid expandable support member further includes at least one biologicalagent for biologically modulating the SNS.
 32. The apparatus of claim17, wherein at least one sensor for measuring at least one metabolicparameter of interest is securely attached to said expandable supportmember.
 33. The apparatus of claim 32, wherein said at least one sensoris positioned in or on a blood vessel.
 34. The apparatus of claim 32,wherein said at least one sensor is positioned in or on an organ.
 35. Anapparatus for renal neuromodulation, said apparatus comprising: anexpandable support member having a main body portion for engaging a wallof a blood vessel proximate a renal vasculature, said expandable supportmember including a main body portion having at least one fenestrationand at least one branch member for engaging a wall of a blood vessel inthe renal vasculature, said at least one branch member comprising anexpandable support member having first and second end portions, saidexpandable support member of said at least one branch member having alumen extending between said first and second end portions, said firstend portion being anastomosed with said at least one fenestration; atleast one electrode connected with said expandable support member, saidat least one electrode arranged to selectively deliver electric currentto a desired location where modulation of the sympathetic nervous system(SNS) is effective to alter renal function; and at least one wirelessmodule capable of receiving electrical energy for delivery to said atleast one electrode.
 36. The apparatus of claim 35, wherein modulationof the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) is effective to alter renalfunction.
 37. The apparatus of claim 35, wherein modulation of the PNSand the SNS is effective to alter renal function.
 38. The apparatus ofclaim 35, wherein said expandable support member further includes aninsulative material attached to at least a portion of said main bodyportion, said insulative material for isolating blood flow through thevessel from the electric current delivered by said at least oneelectrode.
 39. The apparatus of claim 35, wherein said expandablesupport member further includes at least one fenestration.
 40. Theapparatus of claim 35, wherein said expandable support member furtherincludes at least one branch member for engaging a wall of a bloodvessel in the renal vasculature, said at least one branch memberincluding first and second end portions and at least one electrodearranged to selectively deliver electric current to a desired locationwhere modulation of the SNS is effective to alter renal function, saidfirst end portion being anastomosed with said at least one fenestration.41. The apparatus of claim 40, wherein said insulative material isdisposed radially inward of said at least one electrode.
 42. Theapparatus of claim 40, wherein said expandable support member isdisposed radially inward of said insulative material.
 43. The apparatusof claim 40, wherein said insulative material is disposed radiallyinward of said expandable support member.
 44. The apparatus of claim 35,wherein said at least one electrode is disposed radially inward of saidexpandable support member.
 45. The apparatus of claim 35, wherein saidinsulative material extends the entire length of said expandable supportmember.
 46. The apparatus of claim 35, wherein the at least oneelectrode is arranged to deliver a focal electric current to the desiredlocation.
 47. The apparatus of claim 35, wherein at least one magneticmember for generating an electromagnetic field is securely attached tosaid expandable support member.
 48. The apparatus of claim 35, whereinsaid expandable support member further includes at least onepharmacological agent for chemically modulating the SNS.
 49. Theapparatus of claim 35, wherein said expandable support member furtherincludes at least one biological agent for biologically modulating theSNS.
 50. The apparatus of claim 35, wherein at least one sensor formeasuring at least one metabolic parameter of interest is securelyattached to said expandable support member.
 51. The apparatus of claim50, wherein said at least one sensor is positioned in or on a bloodvessel.
 52. The apparatus of claim 50, wherein said at least one sensoris positioned in or on an organ.
 53. A method for renal neuromodulation,said method comprising the steps of: providing an expandable supportmember having a main body portion for engaging a wall of a blood vesselproximate a renal vasculature, the expandable support member including alumen defined by an inner circumferential surface and an outercircumferential surface, the lumen extending between oppositely disposedfirst and second end portions of the expandable support member, at leastone electrode connected with the main body portion arranged toselectively deliver electric current to a desired location, and aninsulative material attached to at least a portion of the expandablesupport member, the insulative material extending the entirelongitudinal length between the first and second end portions of theexpandable support member, the insulative material extendingcircumferentially about the entirety of said inner circumferentialsurface of said expandable support member, the insulative material forisolating blood flow through the vessel from the electric currentdelivered by the at least one electrode; implanting the main bodyportion intravascularly so that the main body portion is proximate arenal vasculature and at least one electrode is positioned substantiallyadjacent a desired location where modulation of the sympathetic nervoussystem (SNS) is effective to alter renal function; and deliveringelectric current to the at least one electrode to effect a change in theSNS.
 54. The method of claim 53, wherein said step of implanting themain body portion intravascularly includes positioning the at least oneelectrode substantially adjacent a desired location where modulation ofthe PNS and the SNS is effective to alter renal function.
 55. The methodof claim 53, wherein said step of implanting the main body portionintravascularly includes positioning the at least one electrodesubstantially adjacent a desired location where modulation of theparasympathetic nervous system (PNS) is effective to alter renalfunction.
 56. The method of claim 53, wherein the change in the SNSincludes a change in neurohormonal activation.
 57. The method of claim53, wherein said step of implanting the main body portion furtherincludes positioning at least a portion of the main body portionsubstantially adjacent a desired location in an aortic arterial wall.58. The method of claim 53, wherein said step of implanting the mainbody portion further includes positioning at least a portion of the mainbody portion substantially adjacent a desired location in a vena cavavenous wall.
 59. The method of claim 53, wherein the change in the SNSis chemically induced by at least one pharmacological agent associatedwith the expandable support member.
 60. The method of claim 53, whereinthe change in the SNS is biologically induced by at least one biologicalagent associated with the expandable support member.
 61. The method ofclaim 53, wherein delivery of electric current to the at least oneelectrode modulates the level of rennin.
 62. The method of claim 53,wherein delivery of electric current to the at least one electrodemodulates at least one of urine production and blood pressure.
 63. Themethod of claim 53, wherein delivery of electric current to the at leastone electrode modulates vasoconstriction or blood vessel tone.
 64. Themethod of claim 53, wherein delivery of electric current to the at leastone electrode modulates efferent neuronal activity.
 65. The method ofclaim 53, wherein delivery of electric current to the at least oneelectrode modulates afferent neuronal activity.
 66. The method of claim53, wherein delivery of electric current to the at least one electrodemodulates both efferent and afferent neuronal activity.
 67. A method forrenal neuromodulation, said method comprising the steps of: providing anexpandable support member for engaging a wall of a blood vesselproximate a renal vasculature, the expandable support member including amain body portion having at least one fenestration and at least onebranch member having first and second end portions, the first endportion being anastomosed with the at least one fenestration, at leastone electrode connected with the expandable support member arranged toselectively deliver electric current to a desired location, and aninsulative material attached to at least a portion of the expandablesupport member for isolating blood flow through the vessel from theelectric current delivered by the at least one electrode; implanting themain body portion intravascularly so that the main body portion isproximate a renal vasculature and at least one electrode is positionedsubstantially adjacent a desired location where modulation of thesympathetic nervous system (SNS) is effective to alter renal function;deploying the at least one branch member such that the at least onebranch member is positioned in the renal vasculature and at least oneelectrode is positioned substantially adjacent a desired location wheremodulation of the SNS is possible, the at least one branch membercomprising an expandable support member having first and second endportions and a lumen that extends between the first and second endportions; and delivering electric current to one or both of the at leastone electrode to effect a change in the SNS.
 68. The method of claim 67,wherein said step of delivering electric current to one or both of theat least one electrode effects a change in the parasympathetic nervoussystem (PNS).
 69. The method of claim 67, wherein said step ofdelivering electric current to one or both of the at least one electrodeeffects a change in the PNS and the SNS.
 70. The method of claim 67,wherein said step of deploying the at least one branch member furthercomprises anastomosing the first end portion of the at least one branchmember with the at least one fenestration.
 71. The method of claim 67,wherein the change in the SNS includes a change in neurohormonalactivation.
 72. The method of claim 67, wherein said step of implantingthe main body portion further includes positioning at least a portion ofthe main body portion substantially adjacent a desired location in anaortic arterial wall.
 73. The method of claim 67, wherein said step ofimplanting the main body portion further includes positioning at least aportion of the main body portion substantially adjacent a desiredlocation in a vena cava venous wall.
 74. The method of claim 67, whereinsaid step of deploying the at least one branch member further includespositioning at least a portion of the at least one branch membersubstantially adjacent a desired location in a renal arterial wall. 75.The method of claim 67, wherein said step of deploying the at least onebranch member further includes positioning at least a portion of the atleast one branch member substantially adjacent a desired location in arenal venous wall.
 76. The method of claim 67, wherein the change in theSNS is chemically induced by at least one pharmacological agentassociated with the expandable support member.
 77. The method of claim67, wherein the change in the SNS is biologically induced by at leastone biological agent associated with the expandable support member. 78.The method of claim 67, wherein delivery of electric current to the atleast one electrode modulates the level of renin.
 79. The method ofclaim 67, wherein delivery of electric current to the at least oneelectrode modulates at least one of urine production and blood pressure.80. The method of claim 67, wherein delivery of electric current to theat least one electrode modulates vasoconstriction or blood vessel tone.81. The method of claim 67, wherein delivery of electric current to theat least one electrode modulates efferent neuronal activity.
 82. Themethod of claim 67, wherein delivery of electric current to the at leastone electrode modulates afferent neuronal activity.
 83. The method ofclaim 67, wherein delivery of electric current to the at least oneelectrode modulates both efferent and afferent neuronal activity.